The Fathers of Sociology - 1550 Words

With reference to examples of their published works assess respectively the work of Marx, Durkheim and Weber. Write one thousand words on each. In the final section, critically assess which of the three theorists has the most contemporary relevance. The fathers of sociology are known as Karl Marx, Emilen Durkheim and Karl Weber they made profound contributions towards study of sociology. This essay will explore the key theoretical concepts for each theorist beginning with Marx thoughts on capitalism, class struggle, materialism, then followed by Weber’s †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ and Finally Durkheim ideas on †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Further, a critical evaluation will be carried out in order to establish which of the three theories has more significance in today’s†¦show more content†¦Division can save, improve and increase instruments of labour that segregates all stages of production but the production under the capitalist was directed towards ‘iron law of proportionality’ subjecting workmen to determine functions. The relationship that remains between persons can be viewed as a relation among things (reification) and converts to ‘inverted’ that money is valuable because it signifies an object of value but the object is also viewed in terms of value since it represents money (Evans, 1975,p 87). Marx refers to the term ‘commodity’ as to things that gratify human needs. According to Hegel, there cannot be unification among an individual and his world because the ‘essence of alienation’ is the cause of the separation among the object and subject and the man can feel restricted from the world as an unfavorable alien to his own urges and wishes (Rader,1979, p120) Class struggle Marx states that all history hitherto the current society is the history of class struggle, class conflict and can be an essential aspect of all class societies. He indicates that without conflict there would be no progress. Further Marx distinguishes between the two classes: the ‘bourgeoisies’ and the ‘proletariat’. The ‘bourgeoisies’ are the owners of land, labour power andShow MoreRelatedFounding Fathers of Sociology1417 Words   |  6 PagesSociology is the study of social behaviour. Our behaviour is patterned in certain ways and sociologists study these patterns and differences in a scientific manner. The study of modern sociology, the objective and systematic study of human behaviour and society, only began from the late 1700s onwards (Giddens, 1989, 1993, 1997, 2001). The origins of this science can be linked to the two great revolutions that occurred in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth century Ââ€" The French Revolution of 1789R ead Morefounding fathers of sociology1117 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Sociology can be defined as the scientific study of society and human behavior. It tries to acquire knowledge about society, and about how the humans making up these societies interact with each other. Auguste Comte was the first true father of sociology. He was the person who coined the term â€Å"sociology†. Other sociologist who can also be called the founding fathers of sociology include Weber, Marx, Engels and Durkheim. In this essay I will be looking at where these sociologists came from and theRead MoreHenri Saint Simon : The Father Of Sociology878 Words   |  4 PagesHenri Saint Simon, also known as the father of Sociology more so than Auguste Comte, also viewed society as a living organism. He coined the term social physiology, which was viewed as a new science and religion. His Sociology focused on the concept of social physiology, where reason, science, intelligence, and rationality would pr oduce a stable society. He did believe that in order to restore society and bring it back to its peaceful state that we had to back track to the boundaries of the eighteenthRead MoreEmile Durkheim, the Father of Sociology Essay2001 Words   |  9 Pagespeople were opening up to the ideals of how a society could be. Without Emile Durkheim, the father of sociology, sociology may not have ever reached the great attributes or been considered something worth pursuing. Durkheim was the change that people needed in order to make their society something worth changing and fighting for. Durkheim’s work had no limitations, he was able to explore every aspect of sociology that he wanted, and that is exactly what he set out to do. Durkheim realized several problemsRead MoreDavid emile Durkheim: Father of Sociology1797 Words   |  8 Pages Throughout his life David Emile Durkheim managed to write about many aspects of life, however his most influential work had to do with sociology. Today he is known as the father of sociology for the innovative and revolutionary work he did. However, his works are not always easily understandable, but once understood its reach is endless. One of the questions that comes from Durkheim’s works is how the individual developed a sense of autonomy, how the individual was able to break out of the moldRead MoreThe Founding Fathers Of Sociology, Emile Durkheim2373 Words   |  10 PagesThis is what one of the founding fathers of sociology , Emile Durkheim , meant when he wrote in 1895 that the establishment of a sense of community is facilitated by a class of actors who carry a stigma and sense of stigmatization and are termed ‘deviant’. Unity is provided to any collectivity by uniting against those who are seen as a common threat to the social order and morality of a group. Consequently, the stigma and the stigmatization of some persons demarcates a boundary that reinforcesRead MoreMax Weber was the Father of Modern Sociology807 Words   |  3 PagesMax Weber is considered by many the father of modern sociology. Born in Germany in 1864, he passed his bar exam in 1886 and completed his Ph.D. in 1889. He suffered a mental breakdown in 1897, after the death of his father, suffering from depression, anxiety and insomnia. He was unable to work for several years. His most famous work was published in 1905 entitled, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. He returned to teaching in 1918 and died in 1920, after contracting the SpanishRead MoreSociology Research into Father-Daughter Relationships Essay2188 Words   |  9 PagesStatement of the Problem: Research over the years has emphasized the role family has upon children within a family system. The role a mother plays for her children has been researched continuously for decades, often neglecting the impact of the father. With this lack of knowledge surrounding a fathers paternal responsibilities and implications as a nurturer, it is important to examine the consequences of their actions on their childrens future. Recently, research has begun to include the fathersRead MoreEmile Durkheim s Theory Of The Founding Fathers Of Modern Sociology841 Words   |  4 PagesEmile Durkheim, is known as one of the founding fathers of modern sociology. Durkheim has the theory that every individual in a community, is to born to live and then die. A Durkheimian definition of community is that it has propinquity, which means residential closeness. Also has a social network where everyone in the community all know each other. Finally, a Durkheimian community must include a collective consciou sness, which is when the people in the community share the same understanding of rightRead MoreSociology : A Sociological Perspective1292 Words   |  6 PagesOrigins of Sociology Ashley Drees Ivy Tech Community College Professor Brosmer April 10,2016 What is Sociology Sociology  is the  study of  social behavior or society, including its origins, development, organization, networks, and institutions. Sociology is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder, and change. Three Main Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology Functional Perspective

Toward the Terror - 1257 Words

The French Revolution began in 1789 aiming to transform France into a more liberal, equal society ruled by a constitutional monarchy. Yet by 1793 it had generated something else entirely— a system of repression and violence referred to as the Terror. While some insist that the Revolution’s culmination at this point was inevitable, others assert that key events between 1789 and 1793 set the Revolution on this particular trajectory. Siding with the latter, I argue that King Louis XVI’s attempted flight in 1791 was an incredibly significant turning point in the Revolution, as its social and political consequences played a vital role in placing the Revolution on the path toward the Terror. While it is impossible to definitively say that†¦show more content†¦From then on it was far harder for anyone to believe or have faith in Louis’ words, leaving the success of the constitutional monarchy in dire question. Though the National Assembly put out a story that Louis had been kidnapped and reinstated him as King upon his acceptance of the constitution, his number of allies dropped, and those who had already been in support of the Revolution were now far more opposed to him. Thus, this shift in opinion played a vital role in opening the way to more radical revolutionary aims and their fulfillment, conditions from which the Terror would later emerge. Further, while public opinion of Louis fell drastically, support for the constitution and National Assembly swelled. On June 23rd after a modified Corpus Christi ceremony in Paris, for example, guardsmen approached the National Assembly asking to take an oath to the constitution that had been ministered a day earlier to others. Soon after, somewhere between 15,000 and 50,000 common folks arrived wanting to take the oath as well. Similar oaths were taken spontaneously in rural areas, with citizens swearing their allegiance to the National Assembly in place of the King. Overall, in the wake of Louis’ flight, public support moved drastically away from the monarchy and toward the constitution, and people everywhere began to reconsider the basis of the new constitution itself. While this shift caused by Louis’s flight did not leadShow MoreRelatedThe Nazi Regime Depended More on Its Broad Popularity Than on Terror in the Years 1933-1939. How Far Do You Agree with This Statem ent?1233 Words   |  5 PagesThe Nazi Regime Depended More on its Broad Popularity than on Terror in the Years 1933-1939. How Far Do You Agree With This Statement? It can be argued that in order for the Nazi Regime to have stayed in power, it was essential that they maintain high popularity. On the other hand, though popularity is needed, it can be debated that the use of terror was a more important aspect to the regime as it ensured that the German people would not question or speak out against the regimes policy and actionsRead MoreEdgar Allen1258 Words   |  6 Pagespoe Edgar Allan Poe is one of those writers who try to horrify us about what is out there, as well as making us conscious of the terror within. He takes the readers to the exterior and gradually moves into the interior, as he talks about not what you are frightened off but the fear itself. These ideas are hindered upon through the short stories ‘The Murder in the Rue Morgue†, â€Å"The Man in the crowd† and â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† as these were one of the first detective stories. Through these shortRead MoreThe Greatest Threat Of The Middle East1032 Words   |  5 Pagesaggressive toward this growing threat and have taken them lightly. They are just growing and becoming more dangerous by the minute. Do innocent people in the us have to die for us to take action against the terror group or are they still a Jv Squad. If we are more aggressive towards the terror group it would create fear within them. That is something that we need to do because right now they don t fear us. If they don t fear us then they will continue their actions and rein of terror. If you didnRead MoreArticle: Terror Attacks against the United States1555 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Terror Attacks against the United States Date Submitted 1998 United States Embassy Bombings in East Africa: The bombings on the United States embassies in East Africa were several attacks that happened on August 7, 1998 in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. These attacks occurred simultaneously and involved truck bomb explosions at the American embassies in these countries resulting in the death of hundreds of people and destruction of property. Moreover, these attacks happened onRead More Horror Versus Terror in Gothic Literature Essay example1421 Words   |  6 PagesHorror Versus Terror in Gothic Literature  Ã‚   Gothic literature can be described as literature that is used to terrify people by portraying situations that border between reality and unreality. The purpose of Gothic literature is to terrify people, not to horrify them. The definition of horror and terror is often misunderstood, many people think they have the same meaning. Devendra Varma, in the Gothic Flame described the difference between these words as an awful apprehension and sickeningRead MoreThe French Revolution1460 Words   |  6 Pagesrevolutionary leaders before or since, to totally transform human society in every way. (Supreme Being) Although Robespierre began with patriotic intent he still was the face of the Reign of Terror and was viewed as being a radical person. On February 5,1794 Robespierre wrote a speech justifying the use of terror in the French government. He talks about how if people themselves are corrupted then liberty is lost and you might as well start over. Robespierre would stop at nothing to get rid of anyoneRead MoreEssay on The War on Terror1493 Words   |  6 PagesWar on terror refers to the ongoing military campaign led by U.S and U.K against organizations identified as terrorists. Terrorism can be defined as an unlawful violence or war deliberately targeted to civilians. It can also be defined as a systematic use of terror to coerce or violent acts intended to create fear. This threat is normally perpetrated for religious, political or ideological goals. The conflict as also called by other names. They include World War III, The Long War, War on TerrorismRead MoreThe State Terror in Taiwan1566 Words   |  6 Pagesthe biggest sources of human suffering and destruction. It is stated that state terrorism leaves traces w hile state terror doesn’t, but this essay will argued that state terror might not be remembered by the general public but it still subconsciously has psychological effect on the citizens. This above theory will be discussed in this essay by a short introduction on both state terror and state terrorism, how they effects the minds of the victims, how they are perceived and remembered, and I will useRead MoreWhich Terror Is Greater: Secular or Religious? Essay1420 Words   |  6 PagesWhich Terror Is Greater: Secular or Religious? Alexandra C. Zuà ±iga CJ290/ Terrorism Mr. Scott Thompson Kaplan College 12/20/2012 Abstract Secular terror is anything that does not have to do with religion; however, religious tactics can be used to get ahead in secular terrorist organizations. Religious terror is based on the protecting, converging, and maintaining beliefs of a religion upheld by a religious terrorist group. Although different tactics are carried out by each different groupRead MoreTerror Management Theory1289 Words   |  6 Pagesself-preservation is a characteristic to both humans and animals, the understanding of one’s own mortality is uniquely human. How do we, as humans, deal with the terror that is associated with this knowledge? According to Terror Management Theory (TMT), developed by Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon, and Tom Pyszczynski (1989), the need for â€Å"terror management† is a fundamental function possessed by humans and cultural systems. Based on the writings of anthropologist Ernest Becker and inspired by Freud’s

Automobile Industry and Sustainability

Question: Discuss about the Automobile Industry and Sustainability. Answer: Introduction This report is basically describing about two big companies in terms of their social values. For the discussion, two big companies Toyota and BMW has been taken. This report will focus on the differences between the companies in terms of range of issues which the companies are dealing in their social reports (Orsato Wells., 2007). Report will also focus on the specific issues of the companies. The descriptions of the companies are as follows: Toyota is the famous automobile manufacturer company of Japan. The company was started in 1937. Headquarter of the company is in Toyota, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. In the few years, Toyota has become one of the leading car manufacturing companies in the world. The company mainly targets low and medium income customers. The company has recently updated its brand cars for better customer services, reduction of carbon dioxide. The company has also changed its strategies for showing transparency to the general public. Like many other companies, Toyota has adopted unique set of values and principle that shape the business of the company in the market. The unique values of the company are the roots of formation in Japan. This is the most powerful and successful brand of Automobile manufacturer in the world. Headquarter of BMW is in Munich, Germany. The company manufactures and sells the passenger cars and motorcycles. The company has mainly three market segments and those are automobiles, financial services and motorcycles. BMW is basically a parent company of Mini and Rolls-Royce car brands. Along with this, the company also manufactures and sells a wide range of sporty cars and motorcycles. From starting, the company is always focused on the core values of business. The message of the values can be seen in its advertising such as television, press, media, motor shows, and trade shows etc (Toyota, 2015). Range of social issues dealt by the companies A business should not only b e accountable to the stakeholders but also it should be responsible for environment, society and towards a sustainable planet. Companies should use C RS activities in its business operations. Basically, CSR is the commitment in the business by the companies to give contribution in sustainable economic development by working with the employees, society and the local community to improve the quality of living standards. By analyzing the corporate social report of Toyota, it can be said that the report has little details related to the issues of its social responsibility but it is clearly providing the information about corporate social responsibility in the company. On the other hand, BMW has well-designed report of social responsibility in which the social issues are described clearly (Cool, and Schendel, 2010). According to the social responsibility report of Toyota, the company has concise, easy and simple strategy in the business operations which is appropriate for the stakeholders as well as customers. The strategy of the company shows that how technical staff of the company is responsible to manufacture better cars step by step. In the figure, the work of technical staff of the company is showing clearly. There is one weakness of Toyota that till 2015 that the Social responsibility Report of the company does not provide proper details of the social activities. It only tells about those things which have achieved by the company but it does not include important exiting social issues which are addressed by the managers and the potential customers. But, it should also be noted that Toyota is one of the leading company which have continuously done progress in improving and delivering the CSR to the society. The CSR of the company can be clearly seen in the fundamental changes to corporate principles and improved better cars (Zapata Nieuwenhuis, 2010) On the other hand, according to the social responsibility report of BMW, c0omoany wants to achieve highest level of sustainability by implementing relevant set of innovations and measures in teach stage of vehicle life cycle. The steps of vehicle life cycle in BMW are described in the given figure. The company releases sustainable value report every year. That report includes the description of CSR programs done by the company. There are various catagories of CSR activities adopted by the BMW such as supporting local communities, educating workers and employees, empowering labor and human rights, gender equality, environment concerns etc. basically, the CSR report of BMW focuses on the all the social issues that are addressed by the company (Zhu, Crotty Sarkis, 2008) Country differences By focusing on the CSR reports of both the companies, it can be analyze that there are lots of differences in the social reports of the companies. Toyota seems to be very practical and cautious while preparing its report. As compared to the BMWs report, it is even very humble. It can be said because the company is continuously working hard for providing efficient culture and adopting proper strategy for the society, government and stakeholders. By the report, it is clear that Toyota is very responsible to its shareholders, other stakeholders and suppliers. The company is also accountable for fulfilling its responsibilities for the local community, society and environment (Sturgeon, Biesebroeck Gereffi, 2008). So, responsibility category and stakeholder responsiveness of Toyota is higher than its competitors. According to the social responsibility report of Toyota, the company is highly responsive when it receives the complaints from the customers, especially senior people of the country. Toyota always tries to provide full customer satisfaction by the products and services. Along with this, Toyota has also achieved many awards i.e. The DJSJ Asian Pacific, The FTSE4 Good Index services and The MS-SRI. These awards prove that Toyota has implemented innovation and development in its products with the core values (Laasch, Conaway, 2015). On the other hand, the social report of BMW has deep information about the CSR activities of the company because the main of the report is to impress the shareholders and its customers. By its CSR report, BMW is successful in influencing its shareholders across the world. The social report of BMW describes how the company has implement ted the code of conducts for the business operations the report assures the general public that the company follows ethics standards in its business for the welfare of the society and environment. Company understands the impact of corporate operations on the society and environment. Company also understands that by investing in CSR products, company will be able to attract more and more customers (Jennifer, 2016) Apparent quality of the social accounting approach This factor will cover the qualities of both of the companies on the basis of Zadek et al.s (1997) eight criteria. This criterion will describe contribution of both companies in terms of best practices of the social accounting. There are mainly eight factors i.e. inclusivity, comparability, completeness, management policies and systems, evolution, disclosure, continuous improvement and external verification. The difference of BMW and Toyota is described in the tabular format: Criteria Toyota BMW Inclusivity Include how company gets feedback from shareholders by which company innovate and develops the cars throughout each process of producing. (Y) The company also includes stakeholders for every decision and for future activities. (Y) Comparability The reports of the company are compared to the past over time and listed standards in the report are well-matched. (Y) Standards are listed with the indicators comparing over the time. All the issues related to social and environment factors with CSR activities are described well. (Y) Disclosure The report is complete and showing the main accounts of the company and reported mainly positive factors. (Y) The report has described the procedure with the relevant sets of innovations. (Y) Management policies and systems In the report, social issues and the implementation of strategies are the important part. (Y) In the report, the procedures on then relevant issues are disclosed for the management. (Y) Completeness All the key activities with little details are described clearly. (Y) The CSR efforts of the company are described well. Report has benchmark and long term goals. (Y) Evolution The company has updated its report time to time with innovative ideas and strategies. (Y) BMW has updated its report annually with the code of conducts and ethics. (Y) External verification The report has been verified by an external organization. (Y) Also verified by external organization. (Y) Continuous Improvement Continuously improving the CSR activities and social performance. (Y) The efforts of the company has positive impact in terms of CSR activities and it is continuously growing (Y). Extent of values Then extents of the social reports by which their values can be reflected are as follows: Toyota BMW Core values Integrity and flourishing society. Integrity, respect for every person, responsibility for success and failure. Mission statements Sustainable growth, enrich lives of local community and always provide better cars (Toyota, 2015). To be most successful car manufacturer in the world and to come up with innovative products time to time. Business principles Contribute to economic and social development, and undertake open and fair business activities. Environment protection, educates workers, and support local community and environment. Toyota seems to very consistent in its report with what the company has done actually in the market. It can be seen by above described core values of the company. The company has the core value of integrity which is being followed by the company. Toyota has different approaches to solve the issues related to energy and resources. On the other hand, BMW always takes the responsibility of its success or failure. The company also has the integrity in its culture. The company is committed to responsible group and wants to provide best quality products to the entire world. The core values of company are demonstrated in the CSR report of the company. The core values can be seen in the quality and safety features in the car and in each product. On the other hand, in the CSR report of BMW, responsibility is one of the main values of the company. The company takes responsibility of every situation. The report demonstrated that the company gives respects to everyone and stands for all (GreenBi z, 2009). Conclusion Through the analysis it has been found about CSR that the report of the BMW is very simple but provides all the important information which is used to explain about the company. On the other hand, Toyota has less issues with more detailed diagrams which are important to know that how the company has achieved this. It is clear that BMW is more technical, well-informed and successful company in automobile industry. The content, design, and the format of the report of BMW are more complicated than Toyota. Toyota has simple format with little descriptions. It has been analyzed that Toyota is very responsible and devoted towards the sustainability in every aspect of the business. The company always creates better cars and focuses on the sustainability growth in the future. My group has both positive and negative sides for both the companies. No one can deny that there are many achievements for the companies and also failures to produce desirable cars. There can be failures due to many reasons such as carbon emission from electricity. It impacts the environment and companies business activities also. So, both of the companies have to understand the impact of natural situations and have to implement the CSR activities accordingly. References Toyota. (2015). Mission, Vision and Strategic Direction. Retrieved on 14th January 2017 from https://www.toyota.com.au/toyota/sustainability/cms/download/Mission_Values_Strategic_Direction_9-11.pdf Toyota. (2015). Corporate Social Responsibility Report. Retrieved on 14th January 2017 from https://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/sustainability_and_responsibility/CSR_worldwide.html Jennifer, G. (2016). Principles of Responsible Management. Retrieved on 14th January 2017 from https://www.toyota.com.au/toyota/sustainability/cms/download/Mission_Values_Strategic_Direction_9-11.pdf Laasch, O. Conaway, R. (2015). Principles of responsible management: global sustainability, responsibility, and ethics. Stanford, USA: Cengage Learning GreenBiz, (2009). BMW and Toyota Create Most 'Sustainable Value,' Report Finds; GM, Fiat Among Laggers. Retrieved on 14th January 2017 from https://www.greenbiz.com/news/2009/11/02/bmw-and-toyota-create-most-sustainable-value-gm-fiat-lag Cool, K. and Schendel, D. (2010). 'Performance differences among strategic group members', Strategic Management Journal. 9(3). pp. 207-223 Zapata, C., Nieuwenhuis, P. (2010). Exploring innovation in the automotive industry: new technologies for cleaner cars: Journal of Cleaner Production. 18(1), pp. 14-20 Zhu, O., Crotty, J., Sarkis, J. (2008). A Cross-Country Empirical Comparison of Environmental Supply Chain Management Practices in the Automotive Industry: Asian Business Management. 7(4). pp. 467-489 Orsato, R.J., Wells., P. (2007). The Automobile Industry Sustainability: Introduction. Journal of Cleaner Production. 15(11-12). pp. 989-993 Sturgeon, T.J., Biesebroeck, J., Gereffi, G. (2008). Value chains, networks, and clusters: Reframing the global automotive industry: Journal of Economic Geography. 8(3). pp. 297-321

Relapse Prevention in Addiction free essay sample

Ideally, a treatment plan emerges from negotiations between the client and therapist to decide what problems are to be addressed in therapy, what goals are reasonable and worthwhile, what pathways and techniques are available, and what steps the client is willing and able to take toward those goals. Periodic review is built into the plan since treatment plans often change as new details come to light or as the client’s situation and the therapeutic relationship evolve. A plan for therapy gives both the therapist and client a sense of direction for their work together. A well articulated plan also potentially enhances treatment efficacy by providing a clear means for tracking progress toward established goals. The therapist has several purposes in developing a treatment plan for a client with a substance use disorder. First and foremost, the therapist wants to motivate and empower clients to make beneficial changes in their substance use behaviors. We will write a custom essay sample on Relapse Prevention in Addiction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page To that end, the therapist structures the task at hand by helping the client identify a range of available options, and by encouraging the client to make informed choices from among those alternatives. In addition to increasing the client’s knowledge, the therapist also plans treatment to boost the client’s sense of self-efficacy, so that clients will have some confidence in their abilities to make good choices and to implement plans of action. Treatment plans that are negotiated directly with clients invite the client to share both initiative and responsibility for determining the course of therapy, including both end goals and the steps to take in striving to reach those goals. In sum, a workable treatment plan is responsive to the client’s stated interests, provides flexible structure, reinforces client choice, supports decision-making, and promotes responsibility for outcomes of client behaviors. Components of a Treatment Plan Once the therapist has a firm conception of the client’s definition of a problem and a sense of the client’s motivation to work on it, the therapist aims at articulating relevant goals and corresponding objectives, which can be explained as steps toward a goal. Beginning with the client’s conception of the problem and the work to be done means that the therapist attempts to pace the course of therapy to move only as far and as fast as the client is willing to go, testing that boundary by pushing gently against it and adjusting the approach according to the client’s reaction. At the outset of planning treatment, the client may report many troubles, a small number, or none at all. The therapist refines the focus by helping the client select a workable number of issues to target. For clients with clear ideas about personal goals and priorities, this part is not difficult. However, clients with diffuse or multitudinous problem statements can be reminded that setting and clarifying priorities makes more efficient use of the time available in sessions. The therapist can acknowledge the legitimacy of all the client’s expressed concerns and still encourage sharpening the focus of the treatment plan. When clients deny any problem or cannot think of a specific one, the therapist can create momentum by reflecting one complaint the client has mentioned already even if the client did not label it as a focus for therapy. A viable treatment plan requires only one goal that both (or all) parties agree to work on, although it certainly may consist of more goals depending on the client’s current understanding. The therapist who responds, â€Å"You’re telling me the main thing you want out of coming here is to get out of trouble by satisfying the judge’s order that you get therapy. I’d say that’s something we can work on together,† will often obtain the client’s willingness to continue the conversation. That one goal can become the basis for an initial treatment plan to satisfy all aspects of the court order by considering what steps the client would need o take in order to do so. Revising a treatment plan In addition to the client’s starting point, the therapist simultaneously entertains ideas about problem definitions and resolution strategies based on what the client has said and done in sessions. The therapist is devising plans as the therapist g ets to know the client. In negotiating a plan with the client, the therapist continually estimates how far the client’s ideas are from the therapist’s own, and how ready and willing the client seems to be to hear alternative perspectives the therapist has to offer. The therapist continually decides how and when to introduce the therapist’s private thoughts into the joint planning process. The therapist’s decisions will rest on an assessment of how far the client has come, how far the client is willing to go, and what resources the client has available to support taking the next step between those two points. The therapist can enhance opportunities for collaboration by telling the client up front that together they can review the treatment plan periodically to decide whether to stick to the game plan or go back to the drawing board. To facilitate collaboration in planning with clients, the therapist needs skills for balancing structure with flexibility. Planning treatment for substance abuse can involve negotiation with clients who are unfocused, skeptical, or resentful about treatment, or who may be trying to test or deceive the therapist. The therapist tries to give the client a framework to clarify expectations and guide progress, but also to remain open to modifying that framework as suggested by the client’s interests, needs, and attitudes. Conclusion I have described treatment planning as a continuous process of offering recommendations, negotiating strategies, and encouraging client choice. Through careful and collaborative planning, the therapist develops a meaningful structure for the course of treatment and promotes increased motivation and self-efficacy on the part of the client. This is accomplished by providing a rationale for goals and strategies tailored to the client’s degree of self-efficacy and readiness for change. Since clients with substance use disorders often embody insufficient senses of structure, motivation, or efficacy to promote change (if not all three), effective lanning establishes therapeutic conditions under which substance abuse can be potentially reduced and positive changes in behavior can be undertaken.

Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essays

Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essays Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essay Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essay Introduction There has been a batch of work and research carried out since the find that age affects drug metamorphosis which can take to toxicity in the 1950s and 1960s. Therefore more cognition and understanding about how drug metamorphosis affects age is critical, which led to the happening out of the of import function of the liver, cytochrome enzyme household, genetic sciences and transporter systems in drug metamorphosis. Age was discovered to hold singular consequence on most of this phenomena involved in drug metamorphosis such as liver volume decrease, lessening in activity of some cytochrome enzymes household. However, the job of acquiring healthy liver tissue of homo and some limitation ethically have limited the surveies of drug metamorphosis effects on age in relation to toxicity. There are legion factor that besides influence the toxicokinetics of drugs in homo. Adult population have more advantage in footings of surveies affecting drugs metamorphosis than the older population and p ediatric population due to hazards involved and ethical grounds in surveies on new drugs which discourage testing of drugs in the older and pediatric population. Changes in drug metamorphosis may be due to differences in toxicokinetics which include soaking up, distribution, metamorphosis or elimination. There are legion variety meats and system that diminution with age and besides undeveloped variety meats and systems in babies or pediatricss affects drug metamorphosis has consequence of this conditions. Advancing age consequences in cut down stomachic acid secernment, stomachic voidance, GI mobility, surface country for soaking up, liver size and map, nephritic map, thin organic structure mass, entire H2O content, serum albumen, cardiac end product and increase organic structure fat which affect straight or indirectly drug metamorphosis and can take to toxicity. Drug METABOLISMS Metamorphosis is a procedure that cause drugs to go more H2O soluble in order to readily take them from the organic structure after they have perform their action in the organic structure. This procedure takes topographic point chiefly in the liver cells and produces metabolites which are non active and sometimes non-toxic, although some metabolites may be toxic. There are drugs that their parent drug are in active and the metabolites produced are active. The mechanisms of drug metamorphosiss are divided into stage I and phase II. Phase I reactions involves structural alteration of drug molecules and stage II reaction dwelling of junction with a more H2O soluble compound. Oxidation, decrease and hydrolysis are chief reaction happening in stage I with engagement of cytochrome p450 enzymes an other enzymes are besides involved in oxidative metamorphosis ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . Maturational alterations occurs from birth in both stage I and phase II metabolic tracts which is no rmally non to the full mature at birth. The liver is most of import organ for drug metamorphosis quantitatively and signifiers about 6 % of the organic structure mass at birth but around 3 % of the organic structure mass in the grownup. Growth is associated with decrease in blood fluxing into the liver and liver volume accordingly ensuing in reduced metabolic clearance with drugs that require high hepatic remotion whereas drugs with low hepatic remotion are normally less removed which can take to toxicity. Depending on the enzyme system involved, there can be production of low or high plasma concentration of active rule due to different capacities to metabolise drug in the paediatric or older people than in grownup. There are healing agent in kids that produces metabolites whereas this metabolites are non present usually in grownup and the metabolites may be the cause of efficaciousness and/or toxicity seen with disposal of drug in kids for illustration kids having Elixophyllin produces caffeine ( Olive et Al. ) and other illustrations of healing agent that differ in metabolite production are paracetamol, salicylamide, Chloromycetin, valproic acid and Tagamet. There is besides different in degree of look of metabolites in kids compared to adult although they express the same enzyme complement but there is no cognition of illustration of metabolite production non usually present in grownup that are seen in the older population. Few exclusions occurs though in most instances because differences between the kids and grownups are in ratio of metabolite compared to the parent drug instead than metabolites that are unevenly specific to the paediatric. PHASE IREACTIONS OXIDATIVE ENZYMES CYTOCHROME P450 ( CYP ) SYSTEM The oxidative metamorphosis of many drugs and chemicals are catalyze by cytochrome p450 isoenzyme superfamily that consist of over 50 proteins. The enzymes are present in the smooth endoplasmic Reticulum of the liver and other tissue in their lipotropic membrane which can be isolated and they become cysts called microsomes. Different cytochrome p450 household are responsible for different metamorphosis for illustration cytochrome p450 households 1-4 are responsible for foreign compounds metamorphosis while the other cytochrome p450 households are responsible for endogenous substrates metamorphosis. The metabolic activation of many chemical carcinogens and toxins that undergoes metamorphosis and used clinically are besides the duty of cytochrome p450. CYP1A There are two isoforms of CYP1A subfamily viz. CYP1A1 AND CPY1A2. CYP1A1 are chiefly extra-hepatic. CYP1A2 is concerned chiefly with the metamorphosis of paracetamol, caffeine, Elixophyllin, impramine hydrochloride, aromatic aminoalkanes, Coumadin and acetophenetidin. All demethylations of N-1, N-3, N-7 and pealing hydroxylation of C-8 in the metamorphosis of caffeine and Elixophyllin are besides the duty of CYP1A2 and other CYP isozymes like CYP3A4/5, CYP2A6 and CYP2E1 besides take portion in these reaction ( Oesterheld et al, Kalow, W. and Tang et al. ) . In pediatric, CYP1A2 is non normally noticeable until one to three months infant age and its additions until about three old ages but remains the same with big degree afterwards. Demethylation of caffeine N-3 depends on CYP1A2 in newborns, babies and grownups but N-3 demethylation is more of import in immature babies. Caffeine metabolic tract matures with postpartum age particularly with entire demethylation, demethylation of N-7 and N-3 demethylation whereas demethylation of N-1 show no fluctuation but ripening occurs at one and half old ages of age. Hydroxylation of C-8 is normally developed at one month in few babies than in grownups. The activity of most demethylation was found to be lower in newborns and babies than grownup and diet of babies besides affect development of CYP1A2 activity ( Blake, M.J. et Al ) . There is lessening in activity of CYP1A2 in aged with caffeine. Most of this fluctuation leads to toxicity and it s dose dependent excessively. CYP2A There are three isoforms of this subfamily viz. CYP2A6, 2A7 and 2A13 ( Hakkola, J. et Al ) . CYP2A6 is chiefly involved in contact action of coumarin 7-hydroxylation ( Pelkonen, O. et Al ) . Urinary elimination of 7-hydroxycoumarin is about the same in kids of six to fourteen old ages and grownups but the rate of riddance is unchanged or reduced for CYP2A substrates in the aged which can do toxicity in relation to dose given. CYP2A6 is non seen in fetal liver. CYP2C The isoforms of this subfamily are CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP2C8. They are involved in metamorphosis of assorted curative agent for illustration anti-inflammatory drugs ( non-steroidal ) , antiepileptics, Coumadin, propranolol, Valium etc and might lend to metamorphosis of endogenous agents e.g arachidonic acid. CYP2C isozymes is noticeable early in neonatal period, one month degree is normally about tierce of grownups and remains the same until about one twelvemonth of age. From birth there is interindividual fluctuation in CYP2C9 protein and activity until about 18years with 36 crease boulder clay five months and less fluctuation between five months and 18 old ages. Phenytoin ( antiepileptic ) and substrate of CYP2C9 pharmacokinetics is affected which can take to toxicity. Expression of CYP2C19 additions from birth for approximately five month and fluctuation of single between five months and ten old ages is about 22 creases but from ten old ages at that place is similarity in activit y and look with grownup ( Blanco, J.G. et Al ) . In the aged there is lessening in the rate of riddance of substrates of both CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 ( Kinirons, M.T. et al and Cusack et Al. ) likely doing toxicity depending on dosage. CYP2D CYP2D6 is involved in the metamorphosis of drugs like A ; szlig ; -blockers, anti jerking drugs, antidepressants ( tricyclic and non-tricyclic ) , codeine, Capoten, ondansetron etc ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . There is addition in the protein look of CYP2D6 from few hebdomads postpartum age to about five old ages and reaches about two- tierce of the grownup degree. There is besides CYP2D6 polymorphism in kids but there is unchanged rate of riddance of substrates of CYP2D6 in the aged. Most of this change with age can impact the metamorphosis taking to toxicity and it s dose dependant. CYP2E CYP2E1 contribute to the metamorphosis of little molecules like paracetamol, aminobenzine, ethyl alcohol, N-nitrosodimethylamine ( strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . The enzymes rises after birth boulder clay about one twelvemonth and go approximately 40 % of big degree but reaches 100 % grownup degree between one twelvemonth and 10 twelvemonth ( strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . It decrease or stay unchanged with age utilizing substrates like paracetamol and chloroxazone ( Kinirons et Al and OMahony et Al. ) but recent survey shows that there is addition in CYP2E1 activity with age in work forces than in adult females ensuing in toxicity depending on dosage. CYP3A CYP3A isoforms are CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7 ; they are the major CYP isoforms found in the liver and little bowel. They are besides involved in oxidization of legion substrates.CYP3A5 is independent of age and variably high in look ( Steven et al. ) . CYP3A4 is majorly expressed in grownup liver while CYP3A7 is majorly expressed in fetal liver. The isoforms are closely related structurally but differs in monooxygenase reaction capacity map. CYP3A7 in fetal liver is really active until after first hebdomad of birth and starts to diminish till it is absent in grownup liver. CYP3A4 is really weak or non present in fetus but rises after birth and it is responsible for biotransformation of cisapride ( serotonin 5-HT4 agonist ) which can do cardiac toxicity in newborns due to steady addition in activity of CYP3A4 in metamorphosis of cisapride that exceeds grownups value activity particularly in newborns and grownup that do nt transport hazard factor impacting them. Another CYP3A4 substrate, endovenous Versed ( ataractic ) metamorphosis is lower in newborns than in babies greater than 3months of age but as a consequence of low activity of CYP3A4 in the bowel of grownup there is addition in bioavailability of Versed following unwritten consumption in preterm babies compared to grownups ( De Wildt, S.N. et Al ) . CYP3A4 development is fastened with diet in babies ( Blake, M.J. et Al ) . In the aged there is inconclusive information about the activity and look of CYP3A but it remain unchanged or lessening with age ( Schmucker et al. ) . FLAVIN-CONTAINING MONOOXYGENASES ( FMOs ) Flavin- containing monooxygenases are critical in oxidative of assorted foreign compounds incorporating nucleophilic N, phosphorus-heteroatoms, Se, S that are NADPH dependant. There are six member cistron household of the enzyme ( FMO 1-6 ) . In the paediatric, FMO1 look was highest from 2months to 4months gestation and a mechanism coupled with construct suppressed wholly look of FMO1 within three yearss post natal. FMO3 look was non present during neonatal period but low degree was present between 2months and 4months gestation ; from one to two old ages of age FMO3 look was present and increase boulder clay about 11 old ages but from 11 old ages to eighteen old ages, there is gender -interdependence in the addition of FMO3 look ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . There is a hepatic nothing FMO phenotype in newborn due speedy station natal suppression of FMO1 and FMO3 look delayed oncoming. MONOAMINE OXIDASES ( MAOs ) Monoamine oxidases are involved in the exogenic and endogenous compounds metamorphosis and found in the chondriosome of liver, kidney, lungs, encephalon, bowel and thrombocytes ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . Their concentration is low in liver and higher in other tissues. The two monoamine oxidases that take portion in drug metamorphosis are MAO A and MAO B. During construct MAO A activity is really high and reduces rapidly in the first two twelvemonth of age and becomes steady afterwards. MAO B activity is low at construct, steady in early age and increases with progressing age. ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE ( ADH ) Alcohol dehydrogenases are cytosolic isozymes that are involved in the reversible oxidization of intoxicants to aldehydes and metamorphosis of endogenous compounds like steroids and vitamin A1. For illustration Atarax to cetirizine. There are six categories of intoxicant dehydrogenase ADH 1-6, five of the ADH 1-5 are found in adult male ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . In newborns, there is immature development of the activity of ADH but from one to two and half twelvemonth of age, the activity of ADH is the same or greater than in grownup. There is no much difference in the activity of ADH in grownup compared to the aged. MOLYBDENUM HYDROXYLASES ( ALDEHYDE OXIDASE AND XANTHINE OXIDASE ) Aldehyde oxidase ( AO ) and Xanthine oxidase ( XO ) are involved in exogenic and endogenous substrates biotransformation. XO is involved in oxidative hydroxylation of hypoxanthine to xanthine, xanthine to uric acid and purine metamorphosis last two stairss in mammals. AO and XO are similar structurally but AO takes portion in metamorphosis of estrogen antagonist, ziprasidone, zaleplon, famciclovir, zonisamide etc. XO activity in plasma is really high in babes compared to adult and AO activity is immature until about 12months after ( Karg, E. et Al and Tayama, Y. et Al ) . XO activity is independent of age in aged. REDUCTIVE ENZYMES NADPH-CYTOCHROME P450 REDUCTASE The negatron giving spouse to CYP enzymes are flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ) and flavin mononucleotide ( FMN ) contained in the cytochrome p450 reductase. NADPH cut downing enzymes are passed to the FAD of cytochrome p450 reductase and so to CYP enzymes via the FMN of the cytochrome p450 reductase. There is no much important alteration with age with NADPH-cytochrome p450 reductase ( Schmucker et al. ) . ALDO-KETOREDUCTASES Aldo ketoreductases are present in red blood cells, liver and are cytosolic enzymes involved in decrease of carbonyl groups. They besides metabolized hypolipidemic drugs ( fenofibrate ) and anti malignant neoplastic disease drugs ( anthracyclines ) . Prostaglandin E1 ( PGE1 ) are metabolized by ketoreductase. ketogroup decrease frequently produce active metamorphosis which can do toxicity with age for illustration idarubicin produces idarubicinol ( alcohol merchandise ) and PGE1 produces 13,14-dihydro-15- ketoprostaglandin E1 which is farther cut down to active compound 13, 14-dihydro-prostaglandin E1. HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES ESTERASES There is lessening in the activity of esterases in newborn than in grownup but in the aged physical failing reduces the activity of esterases particularly those with injuries, undergoing surgery, injured or ill. From 7months gestation to 12months of age, there is speedy addition in the activity of plasma arylesterase and pseudocholinesterase activity, but no important change occurs afterwards. There is disconnected addition in erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity between construct and 12months i.e red blood cells are non matured before construct. Ester signifiers of drugs are largely incompletely hydrolyzed in newborns due to low serum concentration that consequence e.g Erythrocin estolate, Chloromycetin palmitate ( Morselli, P.L. et al. ) . PHASE II REACTIONS Acetylation Junction with acetyl group by drugs like INH, p-aminosalicylic, p-aminobenzoic acid, sulfamezathine and toxic agent is control by activity of N-acetyltransferase ( NAT ) . in premature and neonates, there is acetylation of p-aminobenzoic acid by N-acetyltransferase1 ( NAT1 ) which increase somewhat in babies and is reduced in kids ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . N-acetyltransferase2 ( NAT2 ) involved in caffeine and INH metamorphosis shows that in babies there are slow acetylators or fast acetylators that are non matured with caffeine and with isoniazid acetylation ripening occurs after one twelvemonth, as fast acetylors increases with age till four old ages peak. METHYLATION Junction of methyl group are the duty of S-methytransferase, O-methyltransferase, and N-methyltransferase which are involved in transportation of methyl group to oxygen-nucleophile, nitrogen-nucleophile and sulfur nucleophile. N-methyltransferases Theophylline N-7-methylation in newborn to caffeine is good matured but oxidative demethylation is deficient and matures after several months of age. Thiopurine-s-methyltransferase Thiopurine-s-methyltransferase ( TPMT ) is involved in the metamorphosis of azathiopurine ( converted to 6-MP ) and catalyzes thiopurines metamorphosis e.g 6-MP ( antiblastic drug ) . TPMT is a cytosolic polymorphic enzyme which is cistron specific and are present in many tissue and red blood cell. In pediatric, there is high activity of TPMT in approximately 90 % of the population, approximately 8 % have intermediate activity and 0.3 % have low activity. Inactivation by TPMT which affects the efficaciousness of 6MP in single with low TPMT activity experience terrible toxicity with 6MP standard doses. GLUCURONIDATION There are assorted UDP glucoronsyltransferase ( UGT ) isozymes present in human. Glucuronidation in pediatric ranges adult degree when they are 12weeks to24weeks old, 12months, 36months or subsequently in age depending on the drug. At 12weeks of age, hematoidin glucuronidation which is the duty of UGT1A1 isozymes approach big degree but occurs at really low degrees in newborns liver. For illustration Chloromycetin with lower glucuronidation in paediatric can take to toxicity because glucuronidation is clearly deficient in most premature babes and mature babes. Therefore high concentration of unmetabolized Chloromycetin may increase in sum taking to serious toxicity which cause go arounding prostration or gray baby syndrome with standard dosage per bodyweight. These prompt the more surveies and the dosage was regulated on weight, gestation and postpartum age footing. UGT2B7 besides metabolize Chloromycetin and some UGT isoforms besides eliminates it. 3-glucuronides ( M3G ) and 6-glucu ronides ( M6G ) are formed as a consequence of UGT2B7 metabolising morphia. There is addition in the quality of morphine glucuronidation activity after neonate age. For illustration there is addition in epirubicin glucuronidation activity with age and riddance of epirubicin ( malignant disease intervention ) is majorly by UGT2B7 glucuronidation. In kids of 7 to 10 twelvemonth, there is deficient glucuronidation of paracetamol and salicylamide in correlativity with grownups ( Alam, S.M. et al. ) . UGT1A6 is the chief glucuronidation isozymes of paracetamol although UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 besides takes portion in the glucuronidation ( Court, M.H. et al. ) . Strassburg et Al. observed that UGT1A1, 1A3, 2B15, 2B4, 1A4, 2B7, 1A6, 2B10 and 1A9 are present after 6 months of age. There is different in look of UGT1A1, 1A6 and 2B6 protein but lower messenger RNA look for UGT2B4, 1A9 was seen. Hepatic glucuronidation activity in 1-2years is low compared to grownups for the undermentioned drugs e.g buprenorphine, Elavil, isobutylphenyl propionic acid, theelin, 4-tert-butylphenol. Acyl co-enzymes A, phospholipid content, fatty acid with long concatenation and membrane factors may be responsible for enzymatic activities differences between pediatric and grownup. In aged, there is decreased glucuronidation of lamotrigine and riddance of Serax, retigabine by UGT activity. SULFATION The sulfate junction of several endogenous and exogenic chemicals by sulfotransferase ( SULT ) cistron household that encodes about 11 major enzymes utilizing 3-phosphoadenosine-5-phosphosulfate ( PAPS ) . In peadiatric, there is ripening of sulfate tract at construct which is the chief metabolic path in baby and kids for salicylamide and paracetamol ( Alam, S.M. et al. ) . For illustration in morphine metamorphosis sulfate junction can counterbalance for the less-matured glucuronidation. Junction WITH AMINO ACIDS Biotransformation of some compounds is dependent on the junction of foreign compounds of carboxylic acids with endogenous amino acids. In worlds glycine, glutamine and taurine are aminic acids that undergoes junction often. In pediatric, junction with glycine additions from construct to kids age and is the major tract for metamorphosis of salicylates in newborns ( strolin Benedetti, M.et al. ) . Formation of hippuric acid by glycine junction of benzoic acid is present but deficient in preterm babes. Junction WITH GLUTATHIONE Cytosolic glutathione S-transferase ( GST ) is responsible for junction of glutathione. Catalysiss of conjugate of different electrophiles with decreased glutathione is the major manner by which GSTs metabolize carcinogens, exogenic and endogenous toxins. In pediatric within 12-24months, there is addition in GSTA1 and GSTA2 look to adult degree with norm of 3 crease and GSTM look increased to about 5 crease to adult degree at construct. In grownup liver there is no GSTP1 but it is present in newborns. GST activity and GSTP1 degree in female merely showed of import addition from less than 50 old ages to over 70 old ages ( Hoensch, H. et al. ) . Decision The increasing fluctuation between single in enzymes activity involved in drug metamorphosis coupled with other physiological factors make it hard to distinguish age effects on drug metamorphosis in relation to toxicity but a good cognition about the drugs pharmacokinetics is really of import to cognize patient population that requires dosage accommodation in order to forestall toxicity ( acute or chronic ) after exposure. A better apprehension of the specific drug metabolising enzymes with age fluctuation is besides critical in ordering drugs to patient population and in development of drugs in the patient population. Most drugs metabolized through the cytochrome p450 enzymes decreases with age every bit good as the nephritic riddance of most drugs decreases with age which can take to toxicity. Mentions Strolin Benedetti, M et Al. ( 2005 ) Differences in soaking up, distribution, metamorphosis and elimination between the paediatric and the grownup population. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 1, 447-471 Cazeneuve, C. et Al. ( 1994 ) Biotransformation of caffeine in human liver microsomes from foetuss, newborns, babies and grownups. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 37, 405-412. Zeeh, J. et Al ( 1996 ) Influence of age, infirmity and liver map on the pharmacokinetics of brofaromine. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 49, 387-391 Simon, T. ( 2001 ) Variability of cytochrome P450 1A2 activity over clip in immature and aged healthy voluntaries. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 52, 601-604 Kinirons, M.T. and OMahony, M.S. ( 2004 ) Drug metamorphosis and ageing. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 57, 540-544 Cusack, B.J. ( 2004 ) Pharmacokinetics in older individuals. Am. J. Geriatr. Pharmacother. 2, 274-302 Koukouritaki, S.B et Al. ( 2004 ) Development look of human hepatic CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 308, 965-974 Blanco, J.G. et Al. ( 2000 ) Human cytochrome P450 maximum activities in paediatric versus grownup liver. Drug Metab. Dispos. 28, 379-382 George, J. et Al. ( 1995 ) Age but non gender selectively affects look of single cytochrome P450 proteins in human liver. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50,727-730 Schmucker, D.L. ( 2001 ) Liver map and Phase I drug metabolim in th aged. A paradox. Drugs Aging 18, 837-851 Ishizawa, Y. et Al. ( 2005 ) The consequence of aging on the relationship between the cytochrome P450 2C19 genotype and omeprazole pharmacokinetics. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 44, 1179-1189 Foglia, J.P et Al. ( 1997 ) Plasma degrees of citalopram enantiomorphs and metabolites in aged patients. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 33, 109-112 Stevens, J.C. ( 2006 ) New positions on the impacts of cytochrome P450 3A look for paediatric pharmacological medicine. Drug Discov. Today 11, 440-445 De Wildt, S.N. et Al. ( 2002 ) Pharmacokinetics and metamorphosis of unwritten Versed in preterm babies. Br. J. clin. Pharmacol. 53, 390-392 Patki, K.C. ( 2004 ) Consequence of age on in vitro triazolam biotransformation in male human liver microsomes. J. pharmocol. Exp. Ther. 308, 874-879 Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al. ( 1992 ) Developmental facets of the monoamine-degrading enzymes monoamine oxidases. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 18, 191-200 Kornhuber, J. et Al. ( 1989 ) Growth of monoamine oxidase-A and -B in the human encephalon frontal cerebral mantle. Brain Res. 499, 81 Karg, E.et Al. ( 2001 ) Ferroxidases and xanthine oxidoreductase in plasma of healthy newborn babies. Free Radic. Res. 35, 555-561 Tayama, Y. et Al. ( 2007 ) Developmental alterations of aldehyde oxidase activity in immature Nipponese kids. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 81, 567-572 Eskura, I. et Al. ( 2006 ) Xanthine oxidase does non lend to impaired peripheral conduit arteria endothelium-dependent distension with ageing. J. Physiol. 571, 661-668 Ecobichon, D.J. and Stephens, D.S. ( 1971 ) Perinatal development of blood exterases. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 14, 41-47 Morselli, P.L. et Al. ( 1980 ) Clinical pharmacokinetics in neonates and babies. Clin. Pharmacokin. 5, 485-527 Puche, E. et Al. ( 1989 ) Serum aspirin-esterase activity in epileptic patients having intervention with Phenobarbital, diphenylhydantoin, carbamazepine and valproic acid. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. Res. IX, 55-58 Pope, C.N. et Al. ( 2005 ) Comparative carboxylesterase activities in babies and grownup liver and their in vitro sensitiveness to chlorpyrifos oxon.Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 42, 64-69 Abou Hatab, K. et Al. ( 2001 ) Relationship between age and plasma esterases. Age Aging 30, 41-45 Alam, S.M. et Al. ( 1977 ) Age related differences in salicylamide and acetaminophen junction in adult male. J. pediatr. 90, 130-135 Court, M.H. et Al. ( 2001 ) Interindividual variableness in acetaminophen glucuronidation by human liver microsomes: designation of relevant acetaminophen UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoforms. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299, 998-1006 Strassburg, C.P. et Al. ( 2002 ) Developmental facets of human hepatic drug glucuronidation in immature kids and grownups. Gut 50, 259- 265 Temellini, A. et Al. ( 1991 ) Interindividual variableness in the glucuronidation and sulphation of ethinyloestradiol in human liver. Br. J. clin. Pharmacol. 31, 661-664 Tateishi, T. et Al. ( 1995 ) Influence of aging on the oxidative and conjugative metamorphosis of propranolol. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. 5, 95-101 Miners, J.O. et Al. ( 1988 ) Comparison of paracetamol metamorphosis in immature grownup and aged males. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 35, 157-160 Wynne, H. et Al. ( 1990 ) The association of age and infirmity with paracetamol junction in adult male. Age Aging 19, 419-424 Sonne, J.et Al ( 1991 ) Single dosage pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of unwritten Serax in really aged institutionalised topics. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 31, 719-722 Hermann, R. et Al. ( 2003 ) Effects of age and sex on t6he temperament of retigabine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 73, 61-70 Aksoy, I.A. et Al. ( 1993 ) Human liver dehydroepiandrosterone sulfotransferase: nature and extent of single fluctuation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 54, 498-506 Temellini, A. et Al. ( 1993 ) Junction of benzoic acid with glycine in human liver and kidney: a survey on the interindividual variableness. Xenobiotica 23, 1427-1433 McCarver, D.G. and Hines, R.N. ( 2002 ) The growth of human drug metabolising enzymes: stage II junction enzymes and regulative mechanisms. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 300, 361-366 Hoensch, H.et Al. ( 2006 ) Expression of glutathione enzymes system of human colon mucous membrane by localisation, gender and age. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 22, 1075-1083 Ganiere-Monteli, C. et Al. ( 2004 ) phenotype and genotype for thiopurine methyltransferase activity in the Gallic Caucasic population: impact of age. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 60, 89-96 Johnson, T.N.et Al. ( 2006 ) Prediction of the clearance of 11 drugs and associated variableness in newborns, babies and kids. Clin. Pharmacokin. 45, 931-956 Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al. ( 2006 ) Engagement of enzymes other than CYPs in the oxidative metamorphosis of xenobiotics. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2, 895-921 Olive, G. ( 1991 ) Pharmacocinetique et biotransformation diethylstilbestrols medicines chez lenfant. Louvain Med. 110, 565-569 Oesterheld, J.R. ( 1998 ) A reappraisal of development facets of cytochrome P450. J. Child Adolescent Psychopharmacol. 8, 161-174 Kalow, W. and Tang, B.K. 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Free Essays on Wuthering Heights

Weather And Setting In Wuthering Heights Throughout the novel Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte effectively utilizes weather and setting as methods of conveying insight to the reader of the personal feeling of the characters. While staying at Thrushcross Grange, Mr. Lockwood made a visit to meet Mr. Heathcliff for a second time, and the horrible snow storm that he encounters is the first piece of evidence that he should have perceived about Heathcliff's personality. The setting of the moors is one that makes them a very special place for Catherine and Heathcliff, and they are thus very symbolic of their friendship and spirits. The weather and setting are very effective tools used throughout the novel, for when the weather becomes nice it is not only symbolic of the changing times, and the changing people, but also a new beginning. During his stay at Thrushcross Grange Mr. Lockwood made the perilous journey to Wuthering Heights only a few times. On his second visit, the snow began to drive thickly(7) during his walk, and this horrible weather should have been foreshadowing to Lockwood about Heathcliff's, and the other member's of the household's true personalities. Upon arriving he was forced to bang continually upon the door before someone would take the care to let him in out of the cold. The dinner that Lockwood was permitted to have with the 'family' was anything but hospitable. Lockwood was treated not unlike an ignorant and unworthy guest, and hence the visit was in no way enjoyable for him. When he wanted to leave the Wuthering Heights, Lockwood finds the weather too intolerable for him to even consider venturing out on his own, and upon being attacked by one of the dogs, he was pulled into the kitchen(15) and allowed, however bitterly, to stay the night at Wuthering Heights. Once his walk home commenced the following day, Lockwood found himself being escorted by Heathcliff himself. The path that is used as a means o... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights Free Essays on Wuthering Heights A Romance or not†¦that is the question? â€Å"Wuthering Heights† is a Victorian novel regarding the lives of the Earnshaws and Lintons. Through three generations, they all experience wave after wave of tragedy all originating with Heathcliff’s overwhelming desire for revenge against the Lintons. This hatred is brought on by the treatment Heathcliff receives from the Lintons as well as Edgar Linton’s marriage to Catherine, Heathcliff’s soul mate. Though it is said to believe that this novel is a tragedy, I believe that it is indeed a great romance. People spend much of their lives searching for true love. When true love is found, people will do everything possible to hold on to and cherish it for eternity. It is said that true love, which is filled with intense everlasting emotions, can only be found once in a lifetime. In the Classic Novel â€Å"Wuthering Heights† by Emily Bronte, the characters Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw display a classic example of this powerful emotion. â€Å"Wuthering Heights† examines a passionate and overwhelming love between its central characters, Cathy and Heathcliff. Their love is profound and filled with passion unlike any other. Its intensity builds from their childhood until the untimely death of Catherine. The extent of this love is exemplified during Heathcliff and Catherine’s interactions with each other, during Catherine’s statements to Nelly, and during Catherine’s death where Heathcliff and Catherine embrace for the last time. When Catherine and Heat hcliff were young, they would â€Å"run away to the moors in the morning and remain there all day†(44). They spent a lot of time together playing like children. It is in this time that they create their everlasting bond. Catherine and Heathcliff spend almost every waking hour together and inevitably fall in love. No words could possibly express the great passion they share; yet it becomes obvious in their â€Å"interactions together†. At ... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights Weather And Setting In Wuthering Heights Throughout the novel Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte effectively utilizes weather and setting as methods of conveying insight to the reader of the personal feeling of the characters. While staying at Thrushcross Grange, Mr. Lockwood made a visit to meet Mr. Heathcliff for a second time, and the horrible snow storm that he encounters is the first piece of evidence that he should have perceived about Heathcliff's personality. The setting of the moors is one that makes them a very special place for Catherine and Heathcliff, and they are thus very symbolic of their friendship and spirits. The weather and setting are very effective tools used throughout the novel, for when the weather becomes nice it is not only symbolic of the changing times, and the changing people, but also a new beginning. During his stay at Thrushcross Grange Mr. Lockwood made the perilous journey to Wuthering Heights only a few times. On his second visit, the snow began to drive thickly(7) during his walk, and this horrible weather should have been foreshadowing to Lockwood about Heathcliff's, and the other member's of the household's true personalities. Upon arriving he was forced to bang continually upon the door before someone would take the care to let him in out of the cold. The dinner that Lockwood was permitted to have with the 'family' was anything but hospitable. Lockwood was treated not unlike an ignorant and unworthy guest, and hence the visit was in no way enjoyable for him. When he wanted to leave the Wuthering Heights, Lockwood finds the weather too intolerable for him to even consider venturing out on his own, and upon being attacked by one of the dogs, he was pulled into the kitchen(15) and allowed, however bitterly, to stay the night at Wuthering Heights. Once his walk home commenced the following day, Lockwood found himself being escorted by Heathcliff himself. The path that is used as a means o... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights Wuthering Heights is one of the most popular novels in English Literature. Emily Bronte’s unique picturesque style creates the images in this novel to be vivid and very powerful. These vivid images help illustrate and make each character easier to comprehend. One of main themes of Wuthering Heights is revenge, which is portrayed through the life of Heathcliff, who was brought to Wuthering Heights as a mere child by Mr. Earnshaw. Emily Bronte develops the theme of revenge through Heathcliff as a child who was abused, as an adult who became abusive, and how this affected him before his death. While Heathcliff grew up at Wuthering Heights, he endured severe abuse from his master’s son, Hindley, who was jealous because his father favored Heathcliff over him. Hindley’s abusive treatment continued even after the death of Mr. Earnshaw. Heathcliff believed it was worth all the pain just to see the face of Catherine, Hindley’s sister, whom he had started to fall in love with. However, Catherine deceives him and marries Edgar Linton, leaving Heathcliff devastated. Heathcliff vows that he will seek revenge against the Linton’s, and Earnshaw’s for all the pain they had caused him. As Heathcliff motions to put his plan of revenge into action, he becomes a very brutal and hardhearted demon. In order to act on his plan of revenge, he marries Isabella, who is the lone sister of Edgar Linton. He maliciously abuses Hareton, Hindley’s son, the very same way he was abused as a child. In fact, all of Heathcliff’s actions revolve around the single idea of revenge; and his utmost goal was to take everything Edgar Linton and Hindley Earnshaw have and to make their lives as miserable as possible. He even took advantage of the drunken Hindley by winning Wuthering Heights in a gambling bet. However, Heathcliff in the end couldn’t execute his plan of revenge completely on Hareton and Cathy, for they reminded him of Catherine and hi... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights Brilliance In The Stroke Of A Pen Someone once said, â€Å"No great scoundrel is ever uninteresting.† That someone was probably very famous in their own right but as with all famous or even merely memorable quips, no one seems to remember who spoke, only what was spoken. And, as with all memorable quips, this one is applicable to a great many things in life and imagination. However, this simple phrase is applicable to nothing if not the character of Heathcliff of the novel Wuthering Heights. Admittedly, the human race is forever focused on the characters who intentionally disturb and harm other and create damaging situations to their own avail. Despite, or maybe purely to spite, popular morals, the characters who display an utter disregard for the natural structure of human existence are usually the ones deemed iconic and the most thoroughly scrutinized. As is the case with Emily Bronte’s Heathcliff. Now, if only Bronte’s characters and their motivations were so simple. No, Bronte had to paint brilliance with the stroke of a pen, she had to funnel hate, love, rage, jealousy, passion, and the deepest complexities of human emotion through the tip of her quill. She had to possess the keen artistry to make her readers question every thought, action, and motive behind the embodiment of complexity that is Heathcliff. Is it the simple and superficial division of Heathcliff and his love, Catherine’s social class that motivates Heathcliff to seek revenge? Or does the foundation of that rage burrow much deeper than the shallow, superficial surface into the sagacious privacy of the human experience? Or is Heathcliff simply a character lost and meandering through the puddles of human experience, hazy with opaque morals and mistaken ideals? What is it that truly motivates Heathcliff and his quest for vengeance? Some believe Heathcliff to be inhuman, described by some to be sadistic and demonic. Granted, Heathcliff’s revenge... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights The Essence of Equality at the Moors Although Heathcliff and Catherine’s endless yearning for each other reached further than the dark and gloomy pits of death itself, the fulfillment of love and happiness was only reached within the few moments of reality spent at their rocky castle in the moors. Wuthering Heights was the estate that belonged to Mr. and Mrs. Earnshaw along with their two children Hindley and Catherine, and the dappled and sullen waif given the name Heathcliff. From the beginning of the novel the house alone gives off clues of evil being present, not that the house was haunted by demons and spirits, just the sense of revenge, cruelty, and hatred among its inhabitants. The weather was always extremely harsh consisting of bone-chilling snowstorms and pungent downpours. Over Wuthering Heights hovers â€Å"a horror of great darkness;† where during these outraged storms the air seemed to at times breathe lightening (Chelsea 4184). â€Å"Wuthering† helped depict the brutality of the climate in Yorkshire, England, with its atmospheric tumult. Wuthering Heights was a hell to all who resided there, especially to Heathcliff during his time there because it seemed as though he could never escape the deep sorrows and revengeful spirit that this new life brought upon him. It was always clear that for him Wuthering Heights would never become a comforting haven as he dreamed it would (Maskill 1665-66). Through Catherine Earnshaw’s eyes ,as a child, Wuthering Heights was simply her home where she was once so wonderfully fresh and so fearfully natural (Chelsea 4179). Her and Hindley faught and played together like normal brother and sister until Heathcliff was brought home by their father one afternoon. As she grew older and her love for Heathcliff matured, Wuthering Heights became more of a burden and a place to escape than a place of refuge. The neighboring estate known as Thrushcross Grange is the... Free Essays on Wuthering Heights Wuthering Heights is set in the mid 18th century against a background of wealth and social position. This essay summarises the role of main characters in the story. It also discusses Bronte’s use of imagery and opposites in relation to both setting and characters to create a rich and vividly descriptive story for the reader. Two principal complex characters form the basis of the story line. Catherine Earnshaw lives in Wuthering Heights. Her background is one of wealth and privilege. As a child Catherine was mischievous as described by the servant Nelly Dean â€Å"mischievous and wayward. In her childhood her behaviour was not typical of the normal expectations of a ‘lady’ of that social position. She had a tendency to do the opposite of what she should – playing on the moors instead of reading. A wilful girl who loved freedom and the ability to express herself. During this period in her childhood and particularly after the death of her father Catherine’s personality develops to the point where she is considered unruly. This culminates into her and Heathcliff, - with whom she has become close during her childhood - trespassing onto the grounds of Thrushcross Grange - the home of the Lintons who, having known Catherine, mistake her for a thief and are appalled at what she has become. â€Å"Why Cathy, you are quite a beauty† This observation from her brother Hindley demonstrates the change in catherine on her return to Wuthering Heights after the Lintons have looked after her. Bronte is careful to demonstrate that her personality remains unchanged even though her appearance and behaviour appear outwardly different. This change - and the pressure on Catherine to conform leads her to marrying Edgar Linton. Its apparent that she has nothing in common with him and marries him is for the better social position and money it will give her. This is a contradiction over her true personality reflected in the arguments throughout the ...

What Causes Market Inefficiency Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

What Causes Market Inefficiency - Assignment Example The following situation may lead the market mechanism in not leading to the most efficient output and market will fail. These situations can be classified under the following head: The examples of externalities are, suppose that a person is suffering from a contagious disease. He considers that by going to a doctor, his costs will be the fees paid to doctor and benefits will be the cure of the disease. However, he will not take into account the fact that if he does not go to the doctor, other people might catch the same disease. This will result in less-urgency for him to go to the doctor. This shows how ignorance of negative externalities can lead to over production or irrational response. Now, let’s look at the example of negative externality in the context of a business or economic decision. Suppose you want to buy a car. The main consideration for the purchase will be the cost of the car and possible benefits attained from the car. However, market mechanism will ignore the impact of car purchase on the environment and other parties such as pollution, road congestion and accidents. This ignorance may tempt you into purchasing the good and hence there will be an over-production of good due to negative